Confucius (K'ung-fu-tzu or K'ung-tzu) c. 500 b.c.
Lived at the beginning of "Warring States" period (500-200 b.c.)
Looked back to idealized highly unified Shang and Chou Dynasties, "Feudal" system of government
Earliest Confucian writing: Analects (Lun yü), sayings and stories associated with Confucius and his immediate followers. Written for individuals, assuming no structural change) - c. 500-350 b.c.
Assume strong centralized government is good: to bring order and stability out of chaos of Warring States
How to correct abuses (not revolution, not democracy, not human rights)
A. Self-cultivation to make oneself resistant to corruption and fit for leadership ("elitist")
B. Exercise cultural leadership from middle-level positions of responsibility - - main channel for idealistic altruism
Mencius, c.. 300 (Meng-tzu, the name of a man and a book)
Continue A. & B. above
One structural change: campaign for independent corps of professional consultants, managers, trained in self-cultivation and arts of leadership
Confucius & Mencius probably had little influence in their own time
Begin institutionalizing Mencius’ ideal political structure in Han Dynasty (200 b.c. - 200 a.d.)
1. Hereditary Emperor, Court, and Army
2. Corps of professional mid-level managers trained in Confucian ideals (literati, Mandarins), not appointed by Emperor but selected and promoted by other professionals through peer review (through examinations); provides avenue of upward mobility for individuals born into peasant families (not a "ruling class" by birth); "paternalistic" government, everyday functioning in the hands of professional Mandarins.
3. The masses of peasant farmers (anyone can become a Mandarin through education and examination; those who do not have no say in government)
Long period of disunity after fall of Han Dynasty (220 a.d.)
Reunification under T’ang Dynasty (618-907)
Revival of Confucian ("Neoconfucian") thought and strengthening of Confucian institutions under Sung Dynasty (960-1279), under leadership of Chu Hsi (1130-1200)
Strong Confucian system c. 1200-1650
Ch'ing Dynasty 1644-1911, China ruled by non-Chinese Manchu people, very authoritarian version of Confucianism, Mandarin bureaucracy not independent but tightly controlled by Emperor. Responsible for many negative associations with Confucianism among modern Chinese.
Confucian tradition attacked by many of the most influential intellectual and political leaders in China beginning with "May Fourth" movement 1919. Western-inspired Marxist-Leninist communism comes to power 1949, vigorous anti-Confucian campaigns in 1950's and in "Cultural Revolution" in 1960's. Some similarities between communist (Leninist) style government and Confucianism (power concentrated in the hands of a properly educated elite), but many differences (e.g. communist lack of self-cultivation, very un-Confucian government reliance on force, imposition of communist ideology on the entire populace).
American system born in the middle of revolutions led by educated and well-off middle-class against older European monarchy and aristocracy.
Suspicion and resentment of government power in general; strong emphasis on individual freedom and self-rule ("autonomy"). Government power is a necessary evil, to be limited as much as is practical.
Desire for legal protection from government interference ("human rights," independent judiciary, citizens' rights to sue the government in courts)
Government is only legitimate if it is freely chosen by the governed (government "by the people," through competitive elections.
Disperse government power