2. Vocabulary of Self Cultivation in the Tao Te Ching.

With these passages and comments in mind, I now turn to some detailed observations about the use of the special recurrent terms in the Tao Te Ching. These observations will attempt to support various aspects of my overall thesis about the meaning of the sayings in which they occur, their relation to self-cultivation, and their relation to the rest of Laoist thought.

First, some observations will support the thesis that the terms have a concrete reference to a certain state or quality of mind. My argument here will be this: In the case of the descriptive terms used in this work))like Stillness, Emptiness, Clarity, Harmony, Softness)) the fact that these terms refer to certain ideal qualities Laoists want to develop in themselves is fairly obvious. With others like The Mother and Tao this is not so obvious. My thesis is that these latter terms are hypostatizations of this state of mind, and one of my main arguments here consists in a certain parallelism I will point out between the use of the descriptive terms like Stillness and Femininity on the one hand, and the use of the substantive terms like The Mother and Tao on the other: (1) On the one hand, descriptive terms like Softness are sometimes treated as hypostatizations (for instance in the saying "Softness overcomes hardness" see p. 000). This shows that in the Laoist milieu there did exist a general tendency toward linguistic«FN1.··Note that Chinese words lack inflection, so there is no phonetic or lexicographic difference between the adjective jou/Soft and the abstract noun jou/Softness. So there is more fluidity in Chinese between cases in which jou describes a state or quality of mind, and cases where it designates an hypostatized energy Softness.» and imaginal hypostatization of the personal quality cultivated. (2) On the other hand, substantive terms like The Mother, The Oneness, and Tao are sometimes used in contexts which show that they refer to a concrete state or quality of mind being cultivated. For example, "embrace the Oneness" is part of a meditation instruction, where it is parallel to directives like "bring about Softness." One passage speaks of shou/"watching over" the Mother (29[52]:2), or Tao (63[32]:2), in the same way another speaks of shou ching/"watching over Stillness" (28[16]:1). Some passages speak of yung/using Tao (31[4]:1, 46[35]:3) in the same way another saying speaks of yung/using Femininity (32[6]:4). And so on.

A second point I want to make concerns the unsystematic use of these special terms in the Tao Te Ching. Like the Nei Yeh, the terms are related to each other in various ways in various passages, and the same or similar statements are made about different terms. I take this as an indication that sayings involving these special terms neither teach nor invoke any system of doctrines. All the terms have basically the same phenomenologically concrete reference (Bedeutung), to the ideal state of mind Laoists cultivate. The different meanings (Sinne) of the various terms represent different aspects of this single ideal state.

Thirdly, I want to point out the relation of each of the special terms to the dominant themes of the polemic aphorisms, as for example the fact that the ideal of mental Stillness is the direct contrast to the mental agitation that is the target of one group of polemic aphorisms.

Finally, these observations will point out evidence that Laoists connected the quality of mind they cultivated with certain patterns of action. An internal Softness, for example, expresses itself in a "Soft," non-confrontational way of dealing with opposition (73[36]:1-2).

Some of the observations here draw on discussions of further sayings-forms using the special terms in Chapter Nine, and on arguments in Chapter Eleven showing that the juxtaposition of sayings in the various chapters is not random but indicates certain definite associations of ideas.

Stillness (ching). Chuang Tzu 5.(13/2-10) and 6.(15/13-15) picture Stillness as the opposite of a mind simulated by external impressions. ("The thousands of things are insufficient to distract his mind, so he is ching/Still." 23[26] in the Tao Te Ching also contrasts Stillness with the mental stimulation of sight-seeing. The Laoist ideal of Stillness is thus related to the polemic against stimulation and excitement, which wears one out, and gives one a "light," superficial way of being, as opposed to the dignity and chün/mastery of the Still person (23[26]). In 77[57]:5 "loving Stillness" describes the style of a ruler who also practices "not desiring" and "not doing." His internal Stillness expresses itself in a ruling style that brings about a p'u/Simple people. Like the Chuang Tzu passages, 28[16]:3 suggests a close connection between Stillness, Emptiness, and Clarity. It also associates Stillness with Steadiness, (Stillness and Steadiness are closely connected to Harmony in 33[55]:3), and suggests that being Still gives one the cosmic status of wang/King, Heaven, and Tao. In 5[45]:3 Stillness is an hypostatized te/force that "overcomes" its opposite , and 5[45]:4 ascribes to hypostatized Stillness the cosmic status of "Norm of the World." (Saying 17[28]:1 ascribes a similar status to one who cultivates Femininity, and 35[39]:1 says that the wang/king(s) became the Norm of the World by "getting the Oneness.") The juxtaposition of sayings in 6[15] suggests that following the meditation instructions to gain Stillness and Clarity (6[15]:3) is part of what it means to "hold on to this Tao" (which makes one Empty, 6[15]:4). Saying 56[61]:2 says that Femininity overcomes masculinity by Stillness.

Emptiness. Three synonyms meaning "Empty" occur in the Tao Te Ching: Hsü (16[5]2, 28[16]:1), ch'ung (31[4]:1, [42]:3, 5[45]:1), and wa (4[22]:2). Hsü/empty often has the same negative associations that empty has in English, meaning "worthless"; this is evident in "Is this a hsü/empty saying?" (4[22]:7) See also Mencius (7A/37), which says that a state without jen/Goodness becomes hsü/empty; and Analects (7/36) describes hypocritical people who "are hsü/empty but act ying/full.") Hsü/empty also has a more neutral sense in which it refers to a certain way one's presence feels to others, as when the Chuang Tzu speaks of a swordsman who "makes a display of emptiness, drawing one out with hopes of advantage."«FN1.··HYC 85/30/12 Watson 1968: 341.» Presenting an "empty" appearance seems here the opposite of an attempt to directly overawe one's opponent by presenting a forceful appearance. This seems similar to the meaning of "I came at him empty," quoted in Chuang Tzu 2.(7/30-33). The Tao Te Ching likewise describes the "timid, cautious, yielding, vacant" ideal men as pu-ying/"not full." Emptiness as an external ideal is thus probably associated with the Laoist polemic against admiring fine appearances, which feel solid ("full"), by comparison with the subtle, apparently negligible qualities which Laoists cultivate (see 4[22]:2, 5[45]:1-2). For this reason I think ying/full, the opposite of Empty in 4[22]:2, 5[45]:1, and 31[4]:1, is better translated "solid." The ordinarily positive connotations of ying/solid and negative connotations of hsü/Empty:worthless are probably important in the Tao Te Ching: Laoist paradoxical wisdom emphasizes the fact that the qualities they value most highly are ones that seem empty/worthless from a conventional point of view . In the Laoist ideal this externally felt Emptiness is connected to an internal state of mind also described as Empty. Most of the occurrences of Empty in the Chuang Tzu passages quoted above have this internal, mental Emptiness in mind (although these passages associate Emptiness with mental receptiveness, an association probably not present in the Tao Te Ching). Internal Emptiness is probably intended in 28[16]:1, which associates Emptiness with Stillness. The juxtaposition of sayings in 6[15]:3-4 also suggests that Emptiness is associated with achieving internal mental Stillness and Clarity. Section 16[5]:2 celebrates the inexhaustible energy that comes from an Empty state of mind (compare also 5[45]:1); this seems associated with the theme that agitation wears one out, while a Still/Empty state of mind is more lasting. (Not wearing out is a characteristic of Femininity in 32[6]:4, and implied of Tao in 33[55]:5.) Tao is called Empty in 31[4]:1, and both in this saying and in 6[15]:4, "using" or "holding onto" Tao makes a person Empty (pu-ying/"not solid"). Section 36[42]:3 speaks of a ch'ung/Empty ch'i, which brings Harmony. Chuang Tzu 1.(4/26-33) also speaks of a hsü/Empty ch'i, and pictures Tao as an hypostatized force or quality that "accumulates in Emptiness."

Clarity (ming). Ming can also mean "bright" (44[41]:2), "shine" (4[22]:4), to understand, or "to enlighten [=to educate]" (80[65]:1). The Book of Documents emphasizes the importance of kings having ming te/"bright te." In Chuang Tzu 5.(13/2-10) Clarity is the property of a Still mind, compared to still water; Saying 6[15]:3 uses the same water image to picture clarity brought on by stilling the mind at meditation. Clarity is also associated with Stillness in 28[16]:3. Chapter 27[10] suggests that ming/Clear describes the way the world appears to someone proficient at meditation, and 24[33]:1 says that Clarity is the result of knowing oneself. The juxtaposition of sayings in 73[36] suggests that a ming/Clear state of mind expresses itself in a Soft/Weak style of overcoming opposition. 49[27]:4 probably hypostatizes Clarity by speaking of "putting on Clarity," and the juxtaposition of 49[27]:3 and 4 suggests that the subtle but effective teaching style of the Laoist teacher is an expression of this Clear state of mind. (This makes it a parallel to the subtle but effective "teaching done by not talking," and to Softness, Nothing, and Not-Doing, in 47[43]:1-2.) In 29[52] turning back to Clarity parallels turning back to the Mother, and is associated with watching over Weakness.

Nothing. [wu or wu yu] Wu is usually a verb meaning "there is no...," in contrast to yu/"there is." But wu and yu are also contrasted as meaning "lacking" and "having," or nominally "absence" and "presence." "Non-being" is an approximate translation; wu does not necessarily refer to literal non-existence. It can also refer to something relatively intangible, a seeming "absence." Chuang Tzu 6.(15/13-15) uses wu/non-being as a partial description of an Empty and clear state of mind. This suggests an experiential meaning for the word, referring to the fact that the state of mind involved is so intangible. In 37[14]:3, the elusive internal presence one is trying to grasp is experientially described as "turning back to wu/nothingness," meaning that it recedes into intangibility. In a similar way, in 47[43] wu yu/"non-being" describes a Soft and Not-Doing way of operating, and "teaching without words." So wu/Nothing is probably very similar in meaning to Emptiness, as a very intangible quality of one's mind, and of one's presence as felt by others. (Compare Chuang Tzu 2.(7/30-33), in which Hu Tzu reveals an "Empty" layer of his mind, "not yet emerged from its source.") Chapter 6[11] celebrates the "usefulness" of wu/nothing, suggesting a parallel with the "useful" Emptiness of 5[45]:1. The juxtaposition of sayings in 34[40] suggests that Nothing is associated with a jo/Weak state of mind, another term referring to the relative intangibility of the state of mind Laoists cultivate. The juxtaposition of sayings in this chapter also suggests that Nothing is associated with using Tao, and with the internal motion of fan/"Turning Back." This hypostatized Nothing is the origin of the cosmos (like Tao, The Mother, The Oneness, and Femininity).

The Merging (t'ung). T'ung can mean "to agree with," or "unite with." Chuang Tzu 3.(12/39-40) and 4.(28/54-55) use this term to refer to an internal state, "The Great Merging [ta t'ung]«FN1.··Munro (1969: 162) notes that this same phrase is used in the Li Chi, to describe a social ideal, an ancient utopia in which all belonged to the same family and the weak and poor were well cared for. Mao Tse-tung used the term to refer to Communism. » with the deep and boundless." As a state of mind, T'ung/Merging seems close in meaning to i/Oneness. In 30[56] t'ung/Merging also seems clearly an hypostatization of a calm state of mind. Section 30[56]:3 first speaks of calming one's mind, causing the "dust to settle" in the external world, described as "t'ung/merging the dust." Then it says, "This is called the Mysterious Merging [hsüan t'ung]." This is followed by a saying about trying to grasp an elusive internal presence , in this case an hypostatized "Merging." The chapter ends, "It [The Merging] is the Treasure of the World" (a saying used of Tao in 48[62]). Chapter 43[1] speaks again of hsüan t'ung/"[the] Mysterious Merging," probably identified with a state of "not desiring." It pictures this as an internal mental space (men/abode) in which one can see the hidden essence of things in the world. This same basic idea is expressed in different terms in 29[52]:2 by saying that "getting the Mother" allows one to rightly understand things in the world, the Mother's "children."

Oneness [i]. The Chuang Tzu passages quoted earlier show several interconnected uses of the term i/One. In Chuang Tzu 1.(4/26-33) it probably means "single-minded" in one occurrence; in another occurrence, i chih/"unifying [your] will" is associated with "mind-fasting," having an "Empty ch'i" not preoccupied with external things. In Chuang Tzu 2.(7/30-33) it describes the state of a person undistracted by engagement with the world. Chuang Tzu 6.(15/13-15) associates a "Oneness without change" with ching/Stillness. Chuang Tzu 7.(11/35-43) pictures shou i/"watching over the Oneness" as part of the mental preparation for a spirit journey. Similarly in 27[10], pao i/"embrace the Oneness" is part of a meditation instruction, connected with becoming internally "undivided," and with ying p'o/"carrying the soul." This passage and the Chuang Tzu passages just listed suggest that i/One refers to single-mindedness and lack of distraction, hence I render it as "[mental] Oneness," in the translation, rather than "The One" as many other translators prefer.«FN1.··This represents a change from my previous translation, where I translated it "The One [important] Thing," under the influence of a comparison with Doctrine of the Mean 20/8-18. This still seems to me a possible, only slightly less likely, rendering. In this case it would probably be connected with the "rationalizing" unification of the Laoist worldview described p. 000.» Pao i/"embracing the Oneness" is said in 4[22]:4 to make one spiritual Emperor ("Shepherd of the World"). (Gaining Emperor status is the result of cultivating Femininity in 17[28]:1, and of cultivating Stillness in 28[16]:1-5; Stillness is itself called the Norm of the World in 5[45]:4.) Te i/"getting the Oneness," then, is one way of describing the goal of Laoist self-cultivation, and 35[39]:1 celebrates the cosmic importance of this achievement by saying that an ordered cosmos came about when all the principle elements of the universe "got the Oneness." The saying following this cosmogony pictures the Oneness as something "lowly," so that getting the Oneness expresses itself externally in the adoption of a "low," deferential attitude in one's dealing with others. (56[61] suggests that this posture expresses a Feminine quality of mind.)

Uncarved Block (p'u). P'u can mean "simplicity," but the mention of "cutting" associated with this term in 17[28]:2 and 63[32]:1-3 evokes the concrete association of the word with raw material like jade or wood before it has been carved into some artistic shape. This association is also suggested in Chuang Tzu 2.(7/30-33), by the mention of tiao/carved, describing a state opposite that of p'u/uncarved. (Uncarved describes the state of the recluse Lieh Tzu after he had withdrawn from involvement in the world). In Chuang Tzu 5.(13/2-10) p'u/uncarved describes the "natural" beauty of a spirit that is ching/Still, hsü/Empty, and ming/Clear. The Mencius (6A/1) uses a similar image, attributing to Kao Tzu, a rival teacher, the idea that making a person's character Good and Right is like carving a block of willow to make a cup or a bowl. (Mencius criticizes the image, as implying that cultivating virtue does violence to our hsing/nature.) Chapter 17[28] suggests that p'u/"Uncarved Block" refers to a way of being that has not been "carved up" by the social pressure to identify with only fine appearing qualities. Chapter 63[32] suggests that it is also related to Laoist polemic against "naming": carving up the one true but nameless normative reality (Tao) into many specific rules. 63[32]:1 says that Tao is the Uncarved Block, while the juxtaposition of sayings in 17[28] suggests that gaining Te by cultivating Femininity is equivalent to "using" the Uncarved Block. In 78[19]:2 pao p'u/"embracing the Uncarved Block" describes part of the Laoist ideal, along with "diminishing one's desires, lessening what is personal." In 6[15]:3 the Uncarved Block is associated with an intangible and undefined state of mind in which everything is mixed together and "muddy" (similar to The Merging), and "vacant" (similar to Empty). In 81[37]:2 p'u describes an internal state of the ideal ruler which expresses itself in the manner in which he restrains ambitious and disorderly people, a tactful manner that does not humiliate them.

Harmony (ho). The Nei Yeh pictures mental ho/Harmony as an hypostatized autonomous force when it says "Harmony perfects itself" (p. 000). Similarly, Chuang Tzu 7.(11/35-43) hypostatizes mental ho/Harmony when it says "I watch over the Oneness to abide in Harmony [ch'u chih ho]"; it pictures this mental Harmony as one of the conditions necessary for the spirit journey. One Laoist association with Harmony is illustrated in 33[55]:2 by the Soft/Weak infant, full of ching/vitality, whose inner forces are working together so well that he "can scream all day without getting hoarse." This Harmony brings Steadiness and Clarity. The saying in 36[42]:4 says that an Empty ch'i brings Harmony.

Steadiness (heng in MWT, ch'ang in WP;  MWT has heng where WP has ch'ang. Henricks (1989: xv) says that WP has probably changed the original heng to avoid the taboo name of the Emperor Liu Heng (179-156 B. C.) 

Heng is common in the Tao Te Ching meaning "always, invariably," and is sometimes used (like fan/always in the Nei Yeh)«FN1.··See p. 000 n. 00.» as an introductory or concluding particle. Mencius (1A/7,20) says "To have a heng/steady mind without a steady livelihood))only a shih can do this." He is referring to the pu-tung hsin (2A/2,1), the "unmoved mind" of the ideal shih, able to remain true to its own inner values in the face of external pressures. Heng/Steady probably has a similar meaning when it occurs in the Tao Te Ching, except that here it is connected to the ideal Laoist Still state of mind as a source of internal steadiness. Steadiness is associated with ching/Stilling the Mind and with ming/Clarity in 28[16]:3. In 29[52] the statement "This is cultivating Steadiness" ends a long chain of sayings preceding it, one saying advocating withdrawal from tiring activities, and other sayings that include phrases like "turn back and watch over the Mother," "Watch over Weakness," "turn back to Clarity." Thus Steadiness is probably most closely related to the Laoist polemic against stimulation and excitement; a Steady mind is the opposite of an agitated mind. In 17[28] heng is used as an adjective to describe Te (achieved by cultivating Femininity); and 43[1]:1 uses it as an adjective describing (Laoist) Tao. Especially in the last passage, many understand heng to mean "eternal," Absolute, assimilating Laoist thought to Western metaphysics or to the speculative mysticism of Hindu Vedanta . The trend of the observations being made here runs counter to this assimilation. It suggests instead that heng/Steadiness should be understood against the background of a practical concern to maintain concrete mental stability, in contrast to mental agitation and worry. The heng/invariant Tao is not an element in a doctrine about the two-tiered structure of reality. It is a concretely felt reality one feels within oneself, a true and unchanging internal standard one can always rely on amid the changing circumstances and pressures of the world.  (Hansen (1981: 236) also urges this pragmatic rather than theoretical interpretation of "the invariant Tao.")

Not working (wu wei) and Not desiring (wu yü). Chuang Tzu 5.(13/2-10) speaks of wu wei as an inner state: "hsü/Empty, ching/Still, limpid, silent, not doing [wu wei]...these are the substance of Tao and Te...Still, then not doing [wu wei]." Something similar is implied about the meaning of wu wei in 4.(28/54-55) and 6.(15/13-15). Wu wei is mentioned in the meditation instruction in 27[10], were it seems likewise to describe an internal, Still state of mind. This internal state of mind expresses itself in a certain style of leadership also described as wu wei; see especially: 47[43]:1 where wu wei describes a style of managing or teaching, also described there as animated by ju/Softness and wu-yu/Nothing; 81[37]:1, which says that the Tao animating the ideal ruler's actions "always does nothing"; 77[57]:5, which associates wu wei with Stillness, and not desiring. In 43[1]:3 wu yü/"not desiring" describes a state of mind (probably associated with The Merging) that gives one knowledge of the hidden truth (like "getting the Mother" in 29[52]:2); in 78[19]:2 having few desires is associated with embracing the Uncarved Block.

Soft and Weak (jou jo). Among three "bad friendships," Analects 33/16/4 lists friendship with a shan jou, "one good at being jou/soft," probably referring to a person who is too suave and ingratiating. (Confucians themselves, however, were known as ju, a possible cognate of jou/soft.  See Eno 1990: 190-197; DeBary (1991: 49) connects the continued use of this appellation with the "institutional weakness, highly dependent condition, and extreme insecurity" of Confucian scholars in the rough political waters of the Han period.) 

Jo/weak is normally a negative term, regularly used in the phrase lao jo/"old [and] weak." As with hsü/Emptiness, the negative connotations of these two terms are probably important to the paradoxical wisdom of Laoism, which emphasizes the necessity of cultivating qualities others look down upon. Chapter 27[10] pictures jou/Softness as an internal quality of mind one cultivates at meditation, speaking of this as the result of "concentrating ch'i." (It is also associated here with "embracing Oneness," "remaining Feminine," "not doing," "not knowing," and achieving ming/Clarity.) Chapter 34[40] says that jo/Weakness is a characteristic of one who yung/uses Tao. The juxtaposition of sayings in 29[52] suggests that shou jo/"watching over Weakness" is closely associated with "watching over the Mother," with "turning back to Clarity," and with "cultivating Steadiness." But cultivating this Weakness also results in an inner strength. Chapter 33[55] uses the infant as an image of an ideal person who is jou jo/"Soft and Weak," and yet also strong. (This chapter implies a close association between Softness/Weakness, Te, ching/vitality, ho/Harmony, heng/Steadiness, and ming/Clarity.) Chapter 74[76] associates the jou jo/"Softness and Weakness" Laoists cultivate with an internal aliveness (in contrast to the "deadness" of those who are ch'iang/hard:strong:forcing). The above passages speak of Softness and Weakness as characteristic of an internal state of mind. The juxtaposition of sayings in 73[36] suggests that Softness/Weakness also describes an attitude that expresses itself in a non-confrontational style of overcoming opposition, a style which in 72[64] is said to expresses a "Not Working" state of mind. Chapter 47[43] implies that the terms Softness and Not-Working both refer to the same style of conduct, associated with wu yu/"Nothing" and "the teaching done by not talking." Hence Softness/Weakness as an ideal style of action seems most closely related to the Laoist polemic against a confrontational style of interaction. (See Section Six of the translation and commentary.) Sayings in 73[36]:2, 75[78]:2 picture Softness and Weakness as hypostatized te/forces that overcome their opposites . Soft and Weak never occur in the Chuang Tzu as special terms referring to the object of self-cultivation; this seems one difference between the Taoism of the Tao Te Ching and that represented in the Chuang Tzu.

Femininity. Two synonyms meaning Feminine occur in the Tao Te Ching: p'in (32[6]:2-3, 56[61]:2), and tz'u (27[10]:1, 17[28]:1). The parallelism with "disgraceful" in 17[28] indicates that "being Feminine" would have been looked down upon among men in Warring States China. This is confirmed by Mencius' (3B/2,2) disparaging comparison of other shih to women; his point is that the role of women is to be compliant, but the role of shih to stand up against bad rulers, which these shih fail to do. This suggests that Femininity as a Laoist ideal is connected with jou/Softness, which also means pliant, flexible (the opposite of hard/strong masculinity). P'in chih men/"the [internal] abode of Femininity" suggests that Femininity is a characteristic of an internal mental "space" (compare the mention of an "Empty [inner] chamber" in Chuang Tzu 1.[4/26-33]). Chapter 56[61] suggests that Femininity expresses itself in a deferential ("low") style of diplomacy. (The juxtaposition of sayings in 35[39]:1-2 suggests that adopting a deferential posture is equivalent to "getting the Oneness"). The saying in 56[61]:2 assimilates Femininity to an hypostatized te/force that overcomes masculinity , and associates Femininity's power with Stillness. Chapter 32[6] pictures Femininity (like Tao) as a cosmic origin, and pictures it as an hypostatized quality one can "use"; it is an inexhaustible source of energy to one who "uses" it (like Emptiness in 16[5]:2). Femininity, like Softness, does not occur in the Chuang Tzu as an object of self-cultivation. The Chuang Tzu (Watson 1968: 82.) mentions one woman teacher ("Woman Crookback," who may however be a fictitious person); otherwise I know of no evidence suggesting that the Laoist group included women.  (For women in later Taoism see Cleary 1989.)

I have appended below a newly found ancient text that sheds light on what Laoists probably associated with "Femininity."

The Mother (mu). Chapter 29[52] speaks of internally te/getting and shou/"watching over" the Mother, which is thus an hypostatized internal presence. But (like Femininity, Tao, and Te) this internal presence is also a cosmic origin, "the Mother of the World." The phrase "I treasure the nourishing Mother" (13[20]:5) suggests that this Mother is an internal presence which Laoists find nourishing, similar to the "welcoming" presence of Tao/Te in 14[23] and the "sustaining" Tao in 44[41]. The juxtaposition of sayings in 26[59] suggests that gaining great public influence by "storing up an abundance of Te" is equivalent to "possessing the Mother of the State." (Since t'ien hsia/"the world" usually refers to the Chinese Empire, "the Mother of the World," and "The Mother of the State" are probably equivalent phrases. In the Laoist view, "the Mother of the World" they cultivate is the foundation of true Chinese culture.«FN1.··I find no evidence for the commonly held view that the Laoist worldview was based on physical nature as opposed to human culture; see p. 000.» The juxtaposition of sayings in 29[52]:2-6 suggests that "turning back to watch over the Mother" is parallel to "turning back to Clarity," and is associated with withdrawal from the world, "watching over Weakness" and "cultivating Steadiness." Tao is said to be the Mother of the world in 43[1] and 39[25]. Again, the use of Mother as a special term is peculiar to Laoism; it does not occur in the Chuang Tzu. It is probably related to the fact that Laoist values focus on establishing a nourishing "environment," both internal and external , contrasted with their opposition to inspiring/challenging ideals. (Contrast the inspiring/challenging character of the Judeo-Christian-Islamic male divinity.) The uniqueness of this concept makes one wonder whether Laoism derives ultimately in part from some more feminine-oriented local culture in China))a subject worth further investigation.  (Eberhard (1942: 2:91-95, 96-100) suggests that in ancient times there were some cultures in Southern China which gave more prominence to the role of women.)

Tao. As we saw in the Mencius excerpts in Chapters Three and Four, Tao/road:way was a common term in ancient China, used especially among Warring States shih to describe the "Way," both personal and political, that each advocated. Mencius (3B/4,4) uses wei Tao/"doing Tao" to describe the specific occupation of shih, in contrast to the occupations of carpenters and carriage-makers. The Nei Yeh, the Tao Te Ching, and the Chuang Tzu are the first writings to give the term Tao the pregnant meaning that eventually made it an important term in subsequent religious thought in East Asia, and more recently in the modern West. Its popularity in later cultural contexts has also however tended to make it a rather amorphous term. If one tries to determine the meaning that the term Tao originally had in the Tao Te Ching, paying attention to its cultural context, the verbal context in this work, and to evidence given above concerning its concrete life setting, I think the main points can be summarized under the following five points.

(1) Some Laoist sayings use phrases that assume, following contemporary Chinese usage, that Tao means "the right Way" generally. The point of most of these sayings is to assert that some aspect of Laoist teaching is this right Way.

(2) Some sayings use phrases that do not assert, but already assume, that Tao refers specifically to the Laoist Way. "Doing Tao" (25[48]:1), for example, can be paraphrased as "engaging in Laoist self-cultivation," and the point of the saying using this phrase is to contrast Laoist self-cultivation with Confucian self-cultivation.

(3) Some sayings use phrases that assume that Tao refers to the internal spirit that expresses itself in the Laoist way of being or acting. "Ruling by Tao" (70[60]:1) means letting the spirit of Tao inform governmental policy and leadership style.

(4) Some sayings picture Tao as an hypostatized power or elusive internal presence. "Tao is good at supporting [a person] and bringing [him] to perfection" (44[41]:4) speaks of Tao as a kind of force that sustains a person and perfects his being.

(5) Some sayings picture Tao as a cosmic reality, the origin of the world.

The continuity observable between these various uses of the term Tao suggests the probable lines of development leading from common Chinese to specifically Laoist meanings. Sayings in the first group use Tao in the ordinary sense current among ancient Chinese generally. Sayings in the second group show Laoists appropriating the term Tao to refer to their specific Way, in contrast to the Ways of other schools. (Presumably we see here the beginning of a development which led to the use of Tao to name a particular school of thought [tao chia/"[the] Tao school"] in contrast to other schools.) Laoist emphasis on the cultivation of a certain internal state of mind that expresses itself in a style of conduct probably led to the meaning it has in the third and fourth group of sayings. This suggestion is supported by the fact that Tao is the name of an elusive internal presence or force in the Nei Yeh and the Chuang Tzu also, writings which likewise reflect internal self cultivation. Finally, the hypostatization of Tao, and the fact that it became the predominant name for what was existentially foundational in the Laoist universe (see p. 000-000), are conditions making possible and motivating those sayings picturing Tao as a "cosmic" reality, as ch'i is in the Mencius (p. 000), and as ching is in the Nei Yeh (p. 000). There are no strict boundaries between the five categories of sayings; they represent a continuum.

(1) The first group of sayings does not depart at all from common usage in ancient China. This group assumes that there are general debates among various shih schools about what the right Way consists in, and their point is to identify certain aspects of Laoist advice with this "right Way." The term Tao in these sayings has no necessary connection with specifically Taoist associations with the word, and non-Laoists hearing the sayings would have no difficulty understanding what point was being made. The point of 20[46]:1 is to assert that Laoist contentment (contrasted with acquisitiveness) is in accord with the right Way; 50[53]:6 asserts that the conspicuous consumption of the wealthy is fei Tao/"contrary to [the right] Way"; 80[65]:1 asserts that the right Way of ruling (shan wei Tao/"excellent doing Tao") is to "keep people stupid"; 69[30]:1 asserts that a shih who claims to be advising rulers about the right Way should not urge the use of military force; 43[1] asserts that any Way that can be told is not the heng/invariant Way, the true Way one ought to adhere to under all circumstances; 44[41]:1:1-5 describes shih-students listening to teaching about the right Way (in the original saying this could have referred to the teaching of any shih-school; see the commentary).

(2) The second group of sayings seems to assume an audience who already understand Tao as a reference to the specifically Laoist Way. Section 25[48]:1 contrasts wei Tao/"doing Tao" with wei hsüeh/"doing [Confucian] Learning," a contrast Mencius would certainly not have agreed to; the description of the Tao one teaches as "flat..no taste" in 46[35]:2, and the celebration of the greatness of "sitting and presenting this Tao" (48[62]:5) presume that it is the Laoist Way that is being taught; "great Tao" in 50[53]:1,3 and 12[18], the bright/smooth Tao in 44[41]:2 must be the Laoist Way; "knowing the ancient origins" describes the main thread of Laoist Tao in 37[14]:6 ; it is only the paradoxical Laoist Tao that will necessarily appear laughable to a shih with poor insight (44[41]:1:6); the fact that behavior of water metaphorically models ideal Laoist attitudes and conduct means that it chi yü tao, "approximates the (Laoist) Way." In the light of these passages it seems likely that "in Tao" (1[24]:3) means "from the Laoist point of view"; "foreknowledge is the flower of Tao" (11[38]:6) means that clairvoyance is one product of Laoist self cultivation practice; "turning back is Tao's movement" (34[40]:1) means that "turning back" describes an internal movement characteristic of Laoist self cultivation; in the sentence "one devoted to Tao is a Tao man," (14[23]:3) tao che/"Tao man" can be paraphrased "a true Laoist." The phrases "the Tao of the ancients" (37[14]:5), and "Heaven's Tao" (2[9]:2, 8[81]:4, 9[79]:4, 41[47]:1, 52[77]:1, 58[73]:5) likewise refer to the Laoist Way (see p. 000; compare "Heaven's Te" in Chuang Tzu 6.[15/13-15]).

(3) Even for other schools, Tao is usually not the name of a specific set of rules prescribing the right way of acting. It usually refers to a more generalized conception of a right spirit that ought to animate one's way of acting. In this sense it might be better to speak of Mencius' Tao  (The use of Tao in the Mencius is illustrated in passages quoted on p. 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000.) as Mencius' "approach" to life and politics. This is even more true of Laoists, both because of their opposition to rules and "naming," and because of the central place they gave to cultivating a certain state of mind. The assumption that Tao refers to the spirit that animates the ideal Laoist way of being and acting is evident in sayings like "Being Weak is the practice of Tao [tao chih yung]" (34[40]:1) and "Tao being Empty, one who uses it will not yearn for solidity" (31[4]:1): The character of Tao as an internal spirit manifests itself in the fact that one who yung/uses it will appear to have a "Weak" and "Empty" (pu-ying/"not solid") way of being and acting. "The impression made by magnificent Te comes from Tao" (38[21]:1) means that Laoist Tao as an internal spirit manifests itself in a certain kind of external Te/charisma. This use of Tao probably explains the statement that the seasonal flourishing and dying of things is an example of something pu Tao/"un-Tao-ish"«FN1.··The adverbial pu/not presumably gives Tao an adjectival meaning here.»: the internal spirit Laoists cultivate is Still and lasting, in contrast with the cycles of excitement and exhaustion characteristic of some others. "Ruling by Tao" (70[60]:1) and kings shou tao/"watching over Tao" (63[32]:1) refer to letting the spirit of Tao inform governmental policy and conduct. The sayings "Great Tao drifts, it can go right or go left" (64[34]:1) and "Tao always does nothing, and nothing remains not done" (81[37]:1) also refer to Tao as an internal spirit that animates a ruler . "The norm of Tao is things as they are [tzu jan]) (39[25]:4) probably means that Tao is identical with the feeling one has when one is in a "natural" (organically harmonious) state. Most sayings in this category would be fully understandable only to those who had some familiarity with Laoist self cultivation and the specific state of mind cultivated.

(4) The Nei Yeh says (p. 000) "Men cannot make [Tao] stand fast: [sometimes] it goes and does not return, [sometimes] it comes and does not stay...so obscure! we cannot see its form, so vast! born together with me...Tao...will peacefully settle in a good mind. The mind still, the ch'i right, then Tao can stay." This illustrates the use of Tao in the context of meditative self cultivation, to speak of the spirit one cultivates as an hypostatized internal presence. Chuang Tzu 1.(4/26-33) also pictures Tao as an hypostatized internal force or quality that "accumulates in [mental] Emptiness," brought about through "mind-fasting." Chapter 38[21], and probably chapter 37[14], speak similarly of Tao as an hypostatized internal presence one tries to grasp mentally. And Tao is also pictured as an hypostatized internal presence in the statements that "one who merges with Tao, Tao welcomes him," (14[23]:3) and "Tao...is good at sustaining«FN1.··Waley (ad loc.) notes that tai/support usually refers to financial backing. I supply "person," because of the context in this chapter which opens by speaking of shih practicing the Tao taught to them in a shih school. » [a person] and completing [him]" (44[41]:4). Tao is pictured as an hypostatized power able to protect and rescue people who are not good in 48[62], and "Tao's name" in 38[21]:3 probably refers to Tao as an hypostatized power that can bring people a true understanding of things. Only those involved in specifically Laoist self cultivation would have understood these sayings.

(5) Tao is pictured as something that everything in the cosmos "naturally" treasures and obeys in 65[51], 63[32]:4 (cp. 55[66]:1), and 48[62]:7 (cp. 30[56]:5). It is pictured as a cosmic norm in 39[25]:4. The saying in 28[16]:5 does not assert but assumes that Tao is a cosmic norm superior to Heaven and Earth. These passages probably draw on traditional Chou-dynasty ideas about the Emperor as cosmic norm. Passages picturing Tao as the origin of the cosmos (31[4], 43[1], 36[42], 39[25], 65[51]) will be commented on in detail in Chapter Nine (pp. 000-000). All of these sayings are esoteric, in the sense that only Laoists involved in self cultivation would have understood the hypostatization of Tao assumed in these sayings, and would have appreciated the basis on which cosmic importance is accorded to Tao.

As with the other terms described above, Tao is not related to other special terms in any consistent and systematic way. Tao is described as Empty (31[4):1, cp. 6[15]:4), an Uncarved Block (63[32]:1), the Mother (39[25]:1-2, 43[1]:1-2) doing nothing (81[37]:1). Becoming Tao is the result of becoming Empty, Still, Steady, and Clear (28[16]:5). Cultivation of Tao is described as "being Weak" in 34[40]:1). Although Te seems subordinated to Tao in 65[51]:1, 38[21]:1 and 11[38]:4, it is parallel to Tao in 65[51]:2, 14[23]:3 and in Chapter 70[60]. Tao is something hsiao/"of no account" (63[32]:1; cp. 29[52]:5), "left out" (14[23]:3) of conventional social life, just as the Mother is something that nourishes the alienated person (3[20]:4-5) and the Oneness is said to be something "lowly" ([39]:1-2,4). Both Tao and t'ung/"the Merging" are said to be the "Treasure of the World" (48[62]:7, 30[56]:5). Tao's name (its power) gives one true knowledge (38[21]:3), which can also be gained by attaining a Merged state (43[1]:5) and by "getting the Mother" (29[52]:2). One can yung/"use" Tao (31[4]:1, 46[35]:2-3) just as one can use Femininity (32[6]:1-2, 4) and the Uncarved Block (17[28]:2), and one can shou/"watch over" Tao (63[32]:2, 81[37]:2) just as one can watch over the Mother (29[52]:2), Weakness (29[52]:5), Femininity (17[28]:1), and Stillness (28[16]:1). All these are indications that, although it has a different meaning-content (Sinn) than the other terms, Tao has the same phenomenologically concrete reference to the single hypostatized state of mind that Laoists cultivate.

Te. In passages quoted in earlier chapters, one can see Te used in three principle senses: (1) The Book of Documents says that, if the emperor were not well advised "he would have no te to send down on the people." This is probably connected with the statement about the opposite case: If an emperor had good advisers, "when...he had sacrificial performances, there were none who did not have confidence in him." Public sacrificial performances ideally serve the function of sustaining the Emperor's symbolic normative role by inspiring the people with awe at their grandeur. It gives the Emperor genuine "charisma." This passage says the Emperor will only have genuine charisma if he really stands for something good, manifest in the truly beneficial public policies his wise advisers urge on him. Te thus stands for something good about the emperor's person and policies, but has special reference to the positive impact that this has on the people, the subtle but effective political "power" that it gives him by gaining their respect. See also the use of Te to refer to the invisible influence of a ruler (contrasted with punishment) in the story of Ch'i Tzu quoted p. 000. When Mencius says that many states in his time "are equal in size and te," he is probably using te in a similar meaning: It refers to the "greatness" of the various states, as concretely felt in their reputation and influence. (2) Mencius more often gives a meaning to Te that is closely connected to the moral ideal he advocates as proper to shih. An ideal shih cultivates various virtues (Goodness, Morality, Etiquette). Te can serve as a summary reference to the resultant "virtuous" character of the shih that is his special claim to respect and social position. Te can thus be contrasted with official position, and with hereditary nobility or age, as a claim that a shih has to the respect of others. Said of a top ruler, "honor te and delight in tao" is a code phrase referring to the ruler's giving "virtuous" shih the respect, and the employment, they deserve. (3) In the Nei Yeh passage quoted p. 000, te is used in the context of self-cultivation practice to refer to an internal force one relies on in self-cultivation, ("ch'i can't be made to stay by force, but it can be made peaceful by Te"); a good quality of one's being that is the result of self-cultivation, ("Watch over [ch'i]...and don't lose it. This is called 'Complete Te'); a power that one can yung/use in everyday life ("Use its Te everyday"). In this context traditional meanings of the term Te are not as important to its meaning as the fact that it describes the calm state of mind one is cultivating. That is, these sayings seem to rely on the fact that (as in the Mencius) Te is a general word that can refer to anything someone thinks of as central to human goodness. Something similar seems true of the Chuang Tzu passages quoted above that refer to self cultivation. Here we have statements like "To have a trained nature is to fan/turn back to Te. To perfect Te is to t'ung/merge with the beginning" (3.[12/39-40]); hsü/Empty, ching/Still, limpid, silent, not doing [wu wei]...these are the substance of Tao and Te" (4.[28/54-55]); "In hsü/Emptiness, wu/non-being, clarity, he joins with Heaven's Te...when the mind is without sorrow or joy, [this is] the perfection of Te...It is in the nature of water that when it is not mixed with other things, it will be clear...This is an image of heaven's Te" (6.[15/13-15]).

In the Tao Te Ching, two passages (11:[38]:1-2, 44[41]:3) probably use Te in something like its Mencian sense of "virtue" in general: Their point is that true te/virtue does not look like what people ordinarily consider virtue. And unlike Confucian virtue, Laoist virtue is something one does not "work" at according to conscious ideals (11[38]:2). The saying in 38[21]:1 seems also to be using Te in the normal sense of impressive virtue when it speaks of "the impression made by magnificent Te." The saying in 61[54]:2 also seems to be using Te in a relatively conventional sense when it speaks of the Te of families, villages, and states))that is, their general goodness or greatness, as manifest in their reputation. (This comes about by cultivating "It," that is, the Laoist spirit.) The saying in 71[63]:3 is a common saying (quoted also in Analects 14/36) that uses Te in the sense of "kindness," in contrast to doing injury. This seems connected to two other sayings (9[79]:3, 60[49]:2) that picture Laoist Te as a personal quality that expresses itself in selfless generosity to others, regardless of their merit.

Several other passages picture Te as a personal quality of the ideal Laoist ruler, that ~expresses itself in the specifically Laoist style of his ruling: gently preserving harmony (70[60]:4); opposing disquieting 'improvements' (80[65]:4-5); being self-effacing (27[10]:2); adopting a deferential posture toward subordinates (57[68]:2). (In this last passage, Te is specifically a kind of effective charismatic "power" one gains as a manager through one's deferential and "non-contending" managerial style.) Chapter 27[10] suggests that the Te that expresses itself in a Laoist ruling style is something gained at meditation. Self-cultivation practice is probably also referred to in the statement in 26[59] that speaks of "getting dressed early to store up an abundance of Te," a Te that gives one great political charismatic power ("no one knows the limit, one can possess the state.") And "one devoted to Te, merges with Te...Te welcomes him," implies a meaning of Te similar to its meaning in the Nei Yeh and the Chuang Tzu: an hypostatized internal force one can have a relation to. So when 33[55]:1 speaks of the magical invulnerability of one "who has an abundance of Te," this probably refers to a kind of inner power one gains through self-cultivation (the latter part of 33[55] refers directly to self-cultivation practices.)

In 27[10] Laoist Te is something gained through cultivating The Oneness, Softness, Not Doing, Not Knowing, and Femininity; It is associated with Femininity and the Uncarved Block in 17[28]; with being Soft and Weak, Harmonious, Steady, Clear in 33[55]. Te is sometimes subordinated to Tao (11[38]:4, 38[21]:1, 65[51]:1), but also sometimes parallel to Tao (14[23]:3, 65[51]:2). Chapter 70[60] and 80[65] imply that ruling by Tao and ruling by Te are the same thing, and chapter 44[41] implies that Tao and Te are two names for the same personal quality taught to and developed by members of the Laoist school. Magical invulnerability is ascribed both to "possessing and abundance of Te" in 33[55]:1, and to "fostering life shan/Excellently" in 22[50]:3.

Shan/good:excellent. Shan is very common in Chinese, meaning both "morally good," and "competent" ("good at ...."). Like Tao and Te, and like the English word "good," it is a generic concept: It refers to something the speaker approves of, although different people have different ideas about what actually is "good." Shan is used very frequently in the Tao Te Ching to refer to the ideal Laoist way of being. In several passages it seems to refer to a very high degree of Laoist "goodness": For example 49[27]:3-4 speaks of the Taoist teacher as a shan jen, and his pupil as a pu-shan jen (compare 48[62]:2,4]). It is unlikely that the latter phrase means a "no-good man." It means rather one who is not highly advanced in goodness like the teacher: Hence my translation "Excellent man" and "not-excellent man." This understanding of the word is supported by three other passages (in 49[27]:1-3, 61[54]:1, 22[50]:3), which attribute wonderful and quasi-magical effects to actions done shan/Excellently. Chapter 7[8] describes the important Taoist ideal of non-competitive lowness as "high shan/Excellence." Hence where shan refers to the Laoist ideal, I generally translate it with the English "Excellence" or one of its cognates: See 7[8]:1-2, 6[15]:1, 49[27], 69[30]:4, 22[50]:3, 61[54]:1, 58[73]:5, 9[81]:1. I translate it "the best" in 57[68]:1, and "good" in 48[62]:2,4, 9[79]:1,4 and [49]:2 (in the latter two passages it means "kind.") The use of this common term for "goodness" to describe their ideal is one indication that Laoists did not really aspire to get beyond all value judgments.«LL0»

Besides the special terms describing what it is Laoists cultivate, there seems to be also something of a special vocabulary describing the act of cultivating itself.

Shou/watch-over. We saw especially the term shou/"watch over," used frequently in the Mencius, the Nei Yeh, and the Chuang Tzu (See shou hsing/"watch over the Form", and shou i/"watch over the Oneness" in Chuang Tzu 7.(11/35-43).) to describe the practice of fostering and "guarding" ) in oneself certain qualities or states. (This seems the most basic meaning of the word; shou/guard is used of gold and jewels in 2[9]:1. Mencius also uses it in a more general sense of "take care of," as when he contrasts shou/"taking care of" one's parents with neglecting them. In the Tao Te Ching, shou is used of Stillness (28[16]:1), Femininity (17[28]:1), Tao (63[32]:2, 81[37]:2), The Mother (29[52]:2), and Weakness (29[52]:5. Shou chung/"watch over [what is] inside" in 16[5]:4 probably also refers to self-cultivation.

Yung/use is another recurring verb, probably referring to another aspect of self-cultivation: Letting certain qualities inform one's way of being and acting. Thus the Nei Yeh speaks (p. 000) of "yung/using everyday" the Te one gains through internal cultivation. The Tao Te Ching speaks of yung/using Tao (4[31]:1, 34[40]:1, 46[35:3; in the last passage using Tao is contrasted with trying to grasp it with one's mind), using Femininity (32[6]:4), and using the Uncarved Block (17[28]:2). Yung huang, lit. "use the lights" in 29[52]:6 probably means "engage with the flashing [stimulating] things" in the world, the opposite of "turning back to [internal] Clarity."

Pao/embrace is a term used in the phrase pao shen/"embrace the spirit" in Chuang Tzu 7.(11/35-43), speaking of internal self-cultivation. The Tao Te Ching speaks of pao i/embracing Oneness (27[10]:1, 4[22]:5), and pao p'u/"embracing the Uncarved" 78[19]:2. Pao as a description of qualities one embraces is also probably implied in the phrase pao yang/"embrace yang" (in contrast to yin) 36[42]:2.

Te/get is a term used by the Nei Yeh (p. 000, 000) when speaking of an elusive internal presence one is trying to mentally grasp or "get"; the Tao Te Ching shows a similar use in 37[14]:1. It also speaks of te/getting the Mother (29[52]:2), and the Oneness 35[39]:1. (The similar cosmogony in the Tao Yüan, quoted p. 000, speaks of the cosmic order as a result of things te/getting "It.")

Finally, several words meaning "return" occur in the Tao Te Ching that refer to ideas related to self cultivation. We saw the use of fan/return in the Mencius to refer to introspective "turning inward." The Nei Yeh (p. 000, sect. 6) says that when we become calm the mind fan/"turns back" to completeness. Similarly Chuang Tzu 3.(12/39-40) says that "To have a trained nature is to fan/turn-back to Te"; in Chuang Tzu 2.(7/30-33) the recluse Lieh Tzu is described as "fu/turning back from being tiao/carved and cho/polished to being p'u/Uncarved; Chuang Tzu 4.(28/54-55) says "Undo the mind, slough off the spirit, and the thousands of things one by one will turn back to the root." (This probably describes a felt shift one's experience of the world: when one's mind becomes Still, things in the world seem to reach a singleness also. See p. 000.)

Turn Back. In the Tao Te Ching, fan/"turn back" describes the movement of self-cultivation in 34[40]:1, and a cosmic movement imitative of this in 39[25]:3. In 28[16]:2:2 fu/"turn back" describes Stilling one's mind, in contrast to the tso/activity of things in the world; 72[64]:7 speaks of fu/"turning back" to the "place all others have gone on from"; fu ming in 28[16]:3:2-3 probably evokes the image of a soldier "returning to his commander" to report in, a metaphor for turning inward in self-cultivation; fu shou mu/"turn back [and] watch over the Mother" in 29[52]:2 also contrasts with occupying oneself with worldly affairs in 29[52]:4. Line 28[16]:2:4 speaks of fu-kuei/"turning back" to the Root; 29[52]6 uses this same phrase of turning back to Clarity; 17[28]:1 uses it of turning back to being an infant, unlimited, and an Uncarved Block; 37[14]:3 describes the apparent movement of the elusive internal presence one is trying to grasp as fu-kuei yü wu/"turning back to Nothingness." In 28[16]:3:1 kuei/"turn back" is used in the phrase kuei pen/"turn back to the root" to refer to the act of Stilling one's mind; 4[22]:7 speaks of kuei/turning back to true maturity.

Two Laoist notions condition the meaning of "turn back" in the Tao Te Ching: (A) The idea of an "original" and superior state of mental Stillness we ought to "turn back to." And (B) the idea of an unfortunate human tendency to become mentally active and direct energy outward (see 36[42]:3); in this context Laoist self-cultivation involves a "reversal" of this tendency, "turning back to the place all others have gone on from" (72[64]:7). See comments on "knowing to stop" at 63[32], a phrase that I think evokes similar Laoist ideas.

The Tao-te-ching counts "Femininity" as one of the qualities one should cultivate in oneself (most likely it is addressing an all-male audience), and something that is "the Root of Heaven and Earth." (Chapter 6). Unfortunately, the Tao-te-ching itself gives very few clues as to what "Femininity" meant to its authors. I offer here an excerpt from some newly found ancient texts that associate Femininity with other ideas found in the Tao-te-ching, suggesting that Femininity there also is more or less synonymous with other qualities admired in that book: tranquility, appearing "timid"and "unable," yielding the first place to others, being flexible ("soft"), and so on. By contrast, Masculinity is associated with arrogance, excess, love of strife, rigidity, and so on. As in the Tao-te-ching, a "masculine" way of acting sometimes brings success but it is a success that is short-lived (branches without roots), whereas a "feminine" way of acting brings true and lasting success (branches properly rooted). It is very clear in this text that "female" and "male" refer to attitudes or styles of behavior, perhaps reflecting ancient Chinese sexual stereotypes, but otherwise having nothing to do with being biologically female or male.

The following is a short excerpt from a translation posted on the internet by Prof. Gary Arbuckle, who says that the Chinese text that he is translating is an excerpt from "one of the four lost works excavated from Han Tomb #3 at Mawangdui [in China] in December of 1973. My source for the texts, and the reference for page numbers given below, is the version published in Mawangdui Han mu boshu 1, Peking: Wenwu chubanshe, 1980."

The Tao_te_ching counts "Femininity" as one of the qualities one should cultivate in oneself (most likely it is addressing an all_male audience), and something that is "the Root of Heaven and Earth." (Chapter 6). Unfortunately, the Tao_te_ching itself gives very few clues as to what "Femininity" meant to its authors. I offer here an excerpt from some newly found ancient texts that associate Femininity with other ideas found in the Tao_te_ching, suggesting that Femininity there also is more or less synonymous with other qualities admired in that book: tranquility, appearing "timid"and "unable," yielding the first place to others, being flexible ("soft"), and so on. By contrast, Masculinity is associated with arrogance, excess, love of strife, rigidity, and so on. As in the Tao_te_ching, a "masculine" way of acting sometimes brings success but it is a success that is short_lived (branches without roots), whereas a "feminine" way of acting brings true and lasting success (branches properly rooted). It is very clear in this text that "female" and "male" refer to attitudes or styles of behavior, perhaps reflecting ancient Chinese sexual stereotypes, but otherwise having nothing to do with being biologically female or male.

The following is a short excerpt from a translation posted on the internet by Prof. Gary Arbuckle, who says that the Chinese text that he is translating is an excerpt from "one of the four lost works excavated from Han Tomb #3 at Mawangdui [in China] in December of 1973. My source for the texts, and the reference for page numbers given below, is the version published in Mawangdui Han mu boshu 1, Peking: Wenwu chubanshe, 1980."